The rise and fall of Ackerman's Dniester trade

Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (in different periods Tira, Bilhorod, Moncastro, Ackerman, Chetatia-Albe) is one of the oldest cities in Ukraine with a long history of maritime trade. Since ancient times, the city of Tira was an important trading partner of the Hellenistic world. In the III-IV centuries A.D., as a result of the Gothic invasion, Tira fell into decline and for a long time actually turned into a fishing settlement.

Egyptian religious artifacts found in Tyre. IMAGE: StaryiAkkerman

The Genoese period in the history of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi

The revival of the Dniester trade began thanks to the trading activities of Genoa. Already in the 1290s, the Genoese established themselves in the Dniester region. A notarial deed in Caffa mentions the allocation of a loan of 800 silver coins (aspers) for the purchase of goods in Malvocastro (Moncastro). This is one of the earliest written references to the existence of a trading post on the site of modern Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi. According to the Genoese Bank of St. George, grain worth 0.7 florins per mina (84.4 liters) was exported through Moncastro to Caffa. The Florentine edition of the "Practice of Trade" testified that in 1324-1336 grain from the Danube region was supplied to Genoa and Pera. In 1357-1361, wheat from Podillia, Podnistrovia, and the Danube region was brought to Cyprus from Moncastro.

Grain from the Moldavian principality, even from west of the Siret River, was brought to Moncastro. The tax on exports was 10 aspres with salme (247-302 kg). The quality of the grain was somewhat inferior to wheat from Kaffa.

The slave trade was also developing. Up to 2000 slaves (Bulgarians, Tatars, Rusyns) were sold annually in Moncastro. According to reports of 1438, more than 30 ships with slaves were sent to Constantinople. Over 70 years (1367-1429), the price of slaves tripled: from 23-40 to 80 ducats. There was a certain specialization of slaves: the Egyptians bought strong men for the military, the Greeks preferred educated captives, and the Italians were interested in farmers.

A vivid example of the slave trade of that time was the events in Illich (modern Oleshky) in 1454-1455. The owners of Illich, the Senarega brothers, bought 14 Christian prisoners from Moncastro from the Tatars. Although the usual price for a slave ranged from 4-10 florins, the Senaregas offered the residents of Moncastro to buy their fellow citizens for 3400 florins. The residents of Moncastro freed the prisoners by force and caused the brothers 10 thousand florins in damages, and some of the captured residents of Illichy were sold to the Tatars in Suceava.

Trade contacts of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi

Probably, in 1386 Genoa lost control of Moncastro, as the republic sent two envoys to the city to the Moldovan master Peter I Mushat. The title of the Moldovan lord in 1392-1393 stated: "ruler of the Moldavian land from the mountains to the sea". According to a treaty of 1437, Moncastro sent at least 1 ship with bread to Venice. Memoirs of this period are contained in the work "Description of Old and New Poland" by the Polish historian S. Sarnicki (1532-1597): " Akkerman was once accessible to our people. In the time of Casimir the Great (1333-1370), our ships with Podillia wheat reached Cyprus itself." The archaeological findings are confirmed by written references of that time, cited by Andrii Krasnozhon: "In 1445, the knight Vavrin, when he came to Belgorod on two galleys, found many ships from Trapezund here." In 1450, at the royal council in Krakow, Casimir IV proclaimed that Bilhorod, along with Kilia, were "exceptional ports for ships of the entire East."

The information of modern researchers is confirmed by archaeological findings. In particular, coins of the Giucid dynasty of the 1350s and 1360s, which were minted in Costesti and Orhei, were found in Moncastro. Several coins of Cilician Armenia of the late thirteenth century testify to fairly strong trade ties with Asia Minor. Remains of ceramics originating in Oren-Kala (modern Azerbaijan), bowls from Byzantine Chersonesos, and dishes from Kaffa were discovered. The presence of ceramic remains with relief ornamentation and polychrome underglaze painting indicates trade operations with Central Asia. The dishes with zoomorphic scenes originate from the Volga region, in particular Sarai-Berke. The image of a duck, a symbol of prosperity in Central Asia, is quite common. There are remains of cups of chandelier ceramics with painted lids, which is typical of Italian ware of the mid-14th century. Such cups are found in both Caffa and Genoa at that time. Remains of ceramics with geometric ornaments and 30 fragments with monograms ("DIMITRIOS", "PALAIOLOGOS", "PETROS") prove close ties with Bulgaria and Byzantium.

Carlo Bossoli, "View of the Akkerman Fortress from the North-East". IMAGE: akkermanika.org

The Ottoman period in the history of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi

With the conquest of the city by the Ottomans in 1484, Akkerman became one of the largest ports of the Ottoman Sultanate. In 1490, 15 Greek, 3 Italian, and 6 Ottoman ships arrived there, bringing Moscow, Iranian, and Chinese products from Kafa. In particular, Turkish researcher Halil Inalcik found out that the new Moldavian trade route passed through Akkerman: Middle East - Kafa - Akkerman - Kilia - Moldova - Lviv - Krakow. Through this route, merchants from Lviv, Moldova, and Poland transported wax, honey, butter, lard, leather, and grain to Istanbul. Up to 120 types of goods (glass, cotton, silk, spices, shoes) were brought from the Ottoman Sultanate.

In addition, Akkerman was the largest center of the slave trade in the Northwestern Black Sea region and competed with Kafa and Istanbul. In 1601, the Polish envoy to the "king of Perekop," Lavryn Piaskoczyński, wrote: "In Bilhorod itself I saw a large number of royal subjects who were captured in various places." Most of the slaves were Nogai Tatars, Wallachians, Moldovans, and sometimes Ruthenian Ukrainians.

Using the facilities of the port of Akkerman, the Ottoman state connected the Moldavian and Great Silk Roads under its control. In particular, the Turkish traveler Eulia Celebi in 1657, mentioning the port berths of Akkerman, reported that "in summer and winter there are many ships from different countries. The city is famous for its white bread, lighthouse oil, and selected wheat, barley, and sand for watches."

The analysis of the tax nomenclature allows us to determine the economic specialization of the city. In 1570, the general taxation amounted to almost 331000 akçe. 20,000 akçe (61% of the total) were municipal taxes on business activities and shop trade; 5,000 akçe (1.5%) were tithes for fishing and fishing; 2,800 akçe (0.85%) were for the sale of cattle and runaway slaves. Commercial activities, winemaking, and farming accounted for more than 70% of customs duties.

In the late sixteenth century, the city began to experience economic decline due to Cossack attacks. The largest raids were in 1593-1595, 1606, 1609, 1634, 1659, and 1696, which led to destruction and looting. The purpose of the campaigns was to free the yasir (Slavic prisoners), which was a significant export item from Akkerman. According to Evliya Çelebi, the city brought the Ottoman sultanate 240000 akçe taxes, which was not much compared to the last century.

In addition, Akkerman's trade opportunities were limited by the natural conditions of the Dniester estuary. This was succinctly, but very accurately defined by a Turkish anonymous informant back in 1740: "Because of the low water near the [Akkerman] pier, ships must anchor 3 miles before the fortress." On June 27, 1784, Andre Joseph de Lafitte-Clave described the mouth of the Dniester in his Journal: "...ships anchor inside [the estuary] at a short distance from it at a depth of 10-12 feet. They cannot go any higher than Akkerman, which is about 3 leagues [up to 13.3 km] higher... Vessels with a draft of more than 7-8 feet [2.1-2.4 m] cannot go to Akkerman and anchor at the first of these mouths." Count Vladimir Dzieduszycki, who visited Akkerman in 1785, noted: "In Akkerman, 8 small vessels are built annually that can take goods weighing 4-5 thousand Istanbul kile." At the same time, the cost of freight ranged from 24-30 to 66 pairs for 3 Istanbul keels of wheat. However, most often the captains took no more than 40 pairs for freight, which is quite a bit.

Despite the natural conditions, the city gradually revived, in part due to the cessation of Cossack raids. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, up to 2,000 Turkish ships arrived in Akkerman, carrying local and Moldovan goods. The customs office received 60-70 thousand leva in customs taxes annually. The sale of grain from Tomariv (Reni) to Izmail and Odesa brought in up to 200 thousand leva per year. Thus, Akkerman let almost a quarter of all grain exports from the Northwestern Black Sea region through.

The Dniester estuary in the nineteenth century: bessarabiainform

Development of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi in the Russian Empire

Due to the shallow water, the port of Akkerman was restored only in 1818. Ackerman could receive ships up to 8 feet in draft. The navigation season lasted from April to September. In winter, the port area was covered with ice. The port received small transit ships transporting timber from Kherson. In 1826, the port was visited by 10 ships, including 8 Russian ones. The formation of shipping here is associated with the Odesa merchant Surovtsev. In 1839, he received a 10-year privilege to allow various vessels to pass through the Dniester and the Dniester Estuary. In 1850, the merchant dug a canal from the Turunchuk River to the Dniester through the right mouth of the Dniester Estuary to the Black Sea. At that time, there were no regulations on shipping on the upper Dniester and through the Dniester Estuary to the Black Sea, so the city never started export trade.

In the 1840s and early 1850s, Akkerman experienced a temporary trade decline caused by the intensification of Odesa's trade. While in 1818-1828 83 ships arrived in Ackerman annually and 81 ships departed, in 1840-1844 this figure decreased to 25 and 22 ships, respectively. The annual value of all goods decreased from 41 to 14 thousand rubles in silver.

After 1856, Akkerman became an important transit hub for Bessarabian trade with the provinces of the Russian Empire. Due to the lack of an export port of their own, the landowners of the Akkerman district sent most of their commodity products by the Dniester or cabotage to the port of Odesa. Local authorities reported in December 1857: "Akkerman has become the main storehouse of salt and grain, and great benefits are expected from the cabotage trade." With the loss of the Danube ports, the need to develop the Dniester shipping through Akkerman became urgent. In 1863, traveler Oleksandr Afanasiev-Czuzhbinski spoke about the feasibility of building a highway as an alternative to unstable navigation on the Dniester: "Both the right and left banks of the Dniester need highways... If the Bessarabian nobility undertook to cover the entire region with roads, they would receive significant profits for using each mile of road. If not today, then tomorrow, we can expect a decrease in cargo on the Dniester, and roads do not depend on wind and navigation."

In 1863-1876, the Anatra brothers' steamship company and the Russian Society of Shipping and Trade (ROST) operated on the Dniester. Due to the siltation of the fairway in the upper reaches of the Dniester, the Anatra Company operated the Odesa-Mayaky-Akkerman line. With the outbreak of the war with Turkey in 1877, 6 steamers of the Akkerman line were transferred to the military fleet. In 1881, the ROPiT opened a steamship service from Soroca to the mouth of the Dniester (600 miles) and thus finally transferred the Akkerman line to private companies.

In 1881, the ROPiT sent an expedition to determine the Dniester's ability to be navigated by steamship. According to the commission's conclusion, work began in 1883 to deepen the river bottom. To clear the Dniester, a special tax was levied on cargoes in the amount of 1.25% of their value. In 1896, it was reduced to 1%. Between 1884 and 1891, 4.2 million rubles were spent on hydraulic works. To increase transportation on the Dniester from Akkerman to Odesa, the freight was reduced from 4 to 2.5 kopecks per pud.

Port. The pier. Photo by N. Y. Yan. IMAGE: StaryiAkkerman

Thanks to the construction work, the Dniester became available for towing. The cost of transporting grain decreased from 30 to 16 kopecks, which sometimes led to a 4-fold increase in cargo transportation. Thus, in 1864-1867, 2602.8 thousand poods were delivered from Akkerman to Odesa. As a result of the growth of Akkerman cabotage, 1817 thousand poods of grain were transported to Odesa on the Dniester alone in 1874. At the turn of the 1870s and 1880s, there was a temporary increase in demand for grain in Europe. In 1885-1889, 20524.6 thousand poods were transported from Akkerman to Odesa, and in 1895-1899 - 27979.2 thousand poods of grain.

During 1864-1899, grain transportation by cabotage increased 12 times. Mostly wheat and corn were transported. Between 1879 and 1894, wheat shipments decreased 12 times, while corn sales to Odesa doubled. Thus, in 1900, 349 thousand poods of wheat and 4808 thousand poods of corn were brought to Odesa. In the late nineteenth century, corn became the main grain commodity.

Ackerman remained the main supplier of bread from Budzhak. With its exception, the share of Danube ports in the supply of grain to Odesa ranged from 1.05% in 1900 to 2.4% in 1913.

Grain was also shipped from Akkerman to Odesa by horse-drawn transport. In 1885, the Novorossiysk Telegraph wrote about this: "At least 3.3 million poods are brought to Odesa annually by horse-drawn carts." However, more or less clear statistics have not been preserved. Scholar Ivan Antsupov believed that Akkerman annually shipped up to 14 million poods of grain and 2 million poods of wine, fish, salt, etc. to Odesa. There was a temporary increase in transportation on the Dniester. While in 1870 4755.9 thousand poods were transported, in 1887 it was already 16266 thousand poods.

Pier No. 1. 1889 Photo by Karl Migurski. IMAGE: bessarabiainform

The gradual decline of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi

In the early 1890s, the decline in bread transportation on the Dniester was caused by the construction of the Chisinau Railroad, which sent food directly to Austria-Hungary and Germany. In 1890, cabotage decreased to 10200 thousand poods. In 1893, only 522 thousand poods were delivered to Mayaki station, and in 1897 - 155 thousand. Between 1893 and 1897, bread transportation to Varnitsa decreased by one and a half times: from 2281 thousand to 1515 thousand poods. In 1901, the grain supply stabilized slightly, reaching 2839 thousand poods.

In 1909-1911, at least 2900 thousand poods of bread were sent to Odesa annually. In 1909, 17.8 million poods of grain were delivered from Bessarabia to the port of Odesa, of which no more than 2.9 million poods were delivered by water. In 1910, 4.7 million poods of grain, 2.4 million poods of wood, 700 thousand poods of building stone, and 900 thousand poods of gypsum were shipped down the Dniester; 512 thousand poods of coal, 239 thousand poods of wood, and 89 thousand poods of salt were delivered to Moldova. In 1911, 3188 thousand poods of coal and 634 thousand poods of technical equipment were delivered to the province. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Dniester trade line began to transport mainly industrial goods, cattle, salt, fish, etc.

In 1899, the city authorities of Ackerman raised the issue of opening a seaport and even signed a contract for the construction of a pier and elevator with an Austro-Hungarian citizen named Wangel. However, the government did not support the idea, allegedly because of the contractor's foreign nationality. The real reason was that they did not want to divert cargo from the port of Odesa. This could have led to the loss of the monopoly right to foreign trade in the region by Odesa merchants. In 1902, the Ministry of Industry and Trade temporarily closed the port to commercial vessels.

In 1901-1903, the county zemstvo reported on the construction of a stone bridge near the village of Starokozache and an earthen embankment near the village of Moldovka to improve the traffic of the Akkerman-Starokozache road. In 1905-1910, the city authorities raised the issue of overhauling this route, which passed through the villages of Turlaki and Liuba. According to government officials, the arrangement of this road would somewhat increase the city's transit capacity. Unfortunately, due to the lack of additional money in the provincial treasury, this project was not funded.

The cost of the crossing in 1911 IMAGE: StaryiAkkerman

Only in 1914 did the tsarist government decide to build 5 berths in the port of Akkerman. According to the plan of the Ministry of Railways, it was decided to connect Akkerman with Chisinau and Odesa by railroad lines. With the outbreak of World War I, this plan was partially realized.

The last period of the Russian Empire's existence had negative consequences in the trade history of Ackerman. Not wanting to compete with Odesa, which at the turn of the century began to lose ground not only to the empire's Black Sea ports but also to Constance, imperial officials reserved the port's right to cabotage and service the Dniester logistics corridor. The city, which in the Middle Ages was a trade rival of Constantinople and a cherished dream of Polish kings and Moldovan rulers, lost its potential forever and turned into a base for supplying export grain to Odesa.

Андрій Шевченко