History of the War for Jenkins' Ear: When Geopolitics Is Disguised as a Scandal

There have been many curious conflicts in human history. The name of the so-called War for Jenkins's Ear seems to unambiguously hint that this conflict is no less curious. However, here our intuition may fail us. The only thing curious about this conflict was the pretext used by Britain to start the war, but the confrontation was based on serious geopolitical reasons.

The Treaty of Utrecht and trade in the Caribbean

Relations become more complicated

Britain sends a fleet

The Adventures of George Anson

Georgia vs. Florida

A war without end

Conclusions.

The Treaty of Utrecht and trade in the Caribbean

Spain was one of the first European countries to actively colonize the American continent. Despite its vast territories, Spain did not have a powerful merchant fleet. Therefore, transatlantic trade was mainly provided by Holland, France, and England (later Great Britain). In the eighteenth century, Holland's influence on world trade began to decline, while Great Britain' s began to increase. After the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht was signed, which, among other things, provided for the transfer of the right to hacienda by France to Great Britain. The essence of the hacienda was to grant a certain state the monopoly right to import African slaves to the Spanish colonies in America.

The hacienda contract for Great Britain. Image: Wikipedia

Since the slave trade was highly profitable, obtaining the hacienda might have seemed like a strategic victory for Great Britain. In reality, the benefits were not that significant. The Treaty of Utrecht allowed Great Britain to send 4,800 slaves annually to the Spanish colonies for 30 years. In addition, the British could send a limited amount of goods to America each year. The first problem was that ships from Britain did not always make the trip due to wars and other reasons. At the same time, the tax for the right to trade had to be paid to Spain under any circumstances. The second problem was that the number of slaves and goods allowed to be imported was relatively small. So the British quickly realized that it was unprofitable to work in accordance with the treaty. With the realization of the problem, the smuggling of slaves and goods on British, and later on Dutch and French ships began.

Relations become more complicated

In an attempt to overcome smuggling, Spain established the institution of guadacostas, hired ships that were obliged to patrol the coasts of the Spanish colonies and look out for all foreign ships. In fact, Spain issued a privateer's license to its captains. Sometimes Spanish captains confiscated contraband, sometimes they simply robbed honest foreign captains.

One such case occurred in 1731, when British Captain Robert Jenkins' brig Rebecca was stopped by a Spanish warship led by Juan Leon Fandinho. It is known that the Spaniards accused the British of smuggling after the boarding. As there were many similar cases, British captains began to complain to the metropolis.

The detention of the Brig Rebecca by the Spanish. Image: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

In 1732, the British founded the colony of Georgia in North America. The new colony was a source of concern to the Spanish because it was adjacent to Spanish Florida, which was strategically important for communication with the metropolis. In 1735, the Spaniards even attacked a British settlement in Georgia, which subsequently forced the governor to build defenses, form a detachment of colonists, and establish friendly relations with the local French and Indians.

In turn, the British were dissatisfied with the conclusion of the Family Pact between Louis XV and Philip V, which, in their opinion, could mean that France wanted to take the place of Great Britain as Spain's main trading partner. It should be emphasized that the British considered trade relations with Spain extremely important and profitable.

In 1738, there was another aggravation in the activities of the Guardacostas, which the Tories (a political party in England and Great Britain that represented the interests of the aristocracy - ed.) The Whigs (a party in England, the predecessor of the Liberal Party - ed.) had been in power since 1721, so the Tories wanted to finally change the situation by playing on the inaction of their opponents in protecting the rights of the British.

The same Captain Robert Jenkins came to the House of Commons meeting and organized a little show. According to him, the Spaniards not only accused him of smuggling, but also began to humiliate him in every possible way. When, according to Jenkins, he tried to resist, they cut off his ear. As proof, he showed the parliamentarians a piece of flesh. While cutting off his ear, the Spanish officer allegedly told Jenkins that he would cut off the ear of the English king if he was caught smuggling. In general, historians doubt that Jenkins lost his ear exactly as he said, and that he even showed his ear at all.

A British cartoon showing Robert Jenkins with his ear cut off. Image: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

The situation between Spain and Britain has reached the brink of conflict. The parties attempted a constructive solution but failed to reach an agreement. So in 1739, the War of Jenkins' Ear began.

Britain sends a fleet

The War for Jenkins' Ear was fought mainly in the Caribbean. The British plan was to inflict maximum damage on the Spanish colonies in the region and disrupt communication with Europe. The British decided to simultaneously attack the Spanish colonies in America with two squadrons. One of them, under the command of Vice Admiral Edward Vernon, was to attack from the Caribbean Sea, and the other, under the command of Commodore George Anson, was to bypass Cape Horn and enter from the Pacific Ocean.

Edward Vernon was the first to reach the region. At first, he decided to attack Portobelo, from which the so-called "silver fleet" loaded with treasure was annually sent to Europe. With six battleships at his disposal, the vice admiral began bombarding the fortifications around the city. The Spaniards endured for a day, and then decided to surrender the city. Here Vernon was in for a disappointment: "The Silver Fleet had already sailed for Europe. After spending several weeks in Portobelo, the British destroyed the fortifications and port facilities and retreated.

British ships shelling Portobelo. Image: Wikipedia

Vernon's next target was to be Cartagena, a significant center of Spanish trade with a population of about 10 thousand people. The British Vice-Admiral led a powerful squadron to the city walls, which, according to various sources, included 120 to 186 ships and 20 to 27 thousand personnel. Interestingly, the British troops included 1,000 slaves from Jamaica and up to 4,000 recruits from the colony of Virginia, including George Washington 's brother Lawrence.

Spanish Fort San Felipe in Cartagena in 2005. Photo: Wikipedia

Between 3 and 6 thousand defenders came to defend the city, many of whom were not career military. The city's defenders were led by Admiral Blas de Leso, who already had a legendary status at the time. He participated in many battles in which he lost a leg, an eye, and an arm. Because of his injuries, he was nicknamed the Half Man.

Portrait of Blas de Leso in the Maritime Museum of Madrid. Image: Wikipedia

The siege of Cartagena began successfully for the British. They destroyed a Spanish battery and captured two forts, allowing the British fleet to launch a raid. At this point, Vernon felt victory approaching and sent news of the city's capture to the metropolis. In London, the news was received with jubilation. Moreover, commemorative medals were immediately issued in honor of the victory with the inscription: "The pride of Spain is humiliated. Vernon".

A commemorative medal honoring the capture of Cartagena, which did not take place. Image: Wikipedia

However, not everything was rosy for the British. They had already lost a lot of people killed and wounded. However, the biggest problem was the epidemics of yellow fever and malaria that began to mow down the army. Another key problem was a misunderstanding between Vernon and the commander of the ground forces, Major General Thomas Wentworth. For some reason, the vice admiral refused to provide support from ships, while demanding that Wentworth launch a decisive offensive as soon as possible. The "decisive offensive" resulted in significant British losses, which effectively put an end to the ambitions to capture Cartagena.

The Adventures of George Anson

As we mentioned above, Commodore George Anson was to support the assault on Cartagena by opening a "second front" from the Pacific Ocean. Anson's squadron consisted of six warships and two supply ships. As a result of a storm off Cape Horn, Anson lost two warships, and a third crashed off the coast of Chile. Due to illness and other difficulties in the transition, most of the personnel of the remaining squadron was lost. By then, the assault on Cartagena had already ended. It was obvious that it would not be possible to attack a large city like Lima, so the British successfully attacked the small town of Paita in modern Peru.

A British squadron attacking Paita. Image: Wikipedia

Gradually, only the flagship Centurion remained of the entire squadron. Realizing that his expedition would be regarded as a fiasco, Anson began hunting for Spanish ships. In particular, he decided to capture a galleon that periodically sailed from Acapulco to the Philippines with considerable treasure. Hiding near the Philippines, Anson managed to surprise and cut off the Spanish galleon Covadonga from the coast. After a 90-minute battle, the Spanish surrendered, and Anson captured 34.5 tons of silver.

Now the squadron could return to Britain. The journey lasted four years. It turned out that the expedition went around the world. Of the approximately 1900 members of the expedition who sailed from Britain in 1740, only 188 returned aboard the Centurion.

George Anson's voyage around the world. Map: Wikipedia

Georgia vs. Florida

The border between British Georgia and Spanish Florida became one of the theaters of operations, where clashes occurred even before the war began. In 1740, the British from Georgia attacked the city of St. Augustine in Florida, but the defenders resisted. Then the British laid siege to the city, with the navy supposed to provide a blockade of the coast. However, the naval blockade of St. Augustine failed, forcing the British to eventually lift the siege.

In 1742, it was the Spanish turn to attack Georgia. However, in the battles of Galli Hall Creek and Bloody Swamp, the British celebrated victory, forcing the Spanish to retreat. The British made another attempt to attack St. Augustine the following year, but had little success.

A monument in Georgia commemorating the Battle of Bloody Swamp. Photo: Wikipedia

A war without an ending

Every war ends with the signing of a peace treaty, but the War for Jenkins' Ear was a little different. The fact is that the War for Jenkins's Ear was organically integrated into the War of the Austrian Succession, which swept across Europe and lasted from 1740 to 1748. As the main forces were needed in Europe, the war in the Caribbean effectively ended.

The diplomatic settlement of the War for Jenkins' Ear also took place as part of the peace agreements following the end of the War of the Austrian Succession. Great Britain and Spain maintained the status quo in the Caribbean that existed before the outbreak of hostilities.

The issue of the hacienda was not even mentioned in the treaty. This issue was finally settled by the Treaty of Madrid in 1750, according to which Britain renounced its claims to the hacienda in exchange for a payment of 100 thousand pounds. Relations between Britain and Spain even improved for a while, but they had to fight again during the Seven Years' War.

Conclusions.

Despite its name, the War for Jenkins' Ear was not a curious misunderstanding between Britain and Spain. On the contrary, it was a fairly typical war between colonial empires for the redistribution of spheres of influence in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It is not without reason that Spanish sources refer to the conflict as the War of the Hacienda, which is a clear indication of the importance of international trade at the time.

Of course, the war might not have started in 1739, as the casus belli was virtually pulled out of the bag. In that case, the confrontation would have simply begun a year later as part of the War of the Austrian Succession, as contradictions and mutual discontent between the countries grew steadily.

During the war , Great Britain demonstrated its dominance on the world's oceans, but failed to materialize it into concrete territorial achievements.

There are several reasons for this. First, maritime dominance over other states did not mean control over the ocean elements, which in the eighteenth century were quite capable of throwing up unpleasant surprises.

Secondly, territorial gains occur on land, and here the British had no advantage over the Spaniards. The Spaniards had a disciplined, professional European army that had not yet forgotten the glorious traditions of the past centuries.

Third, commanders are of great importance during decisive battles. In the Battle of Cartagena, mistakes and misunderstandings between British officers were skillfully exploited by Admiral Blas de Leso, who went down in the history of Spain and Colombia with one leg forever.

We can say that the War for Jenkins' Ear clearly demonstrated existing geopolitical trends. In the eighteenth century, Great Britain was gradually gaining strength, claiming the role of number one in the world. Spain, on the other hand, was on the decline from its former power. In the eighteenth century, it would still be able to maintain its status as a colonial superpower, but the Napoleonic Wars of the early part of the next century were the first nail in the coffin of Spanish colonial ambitions.

Олег Пархітько